Perspectives on Family and Society

The family structures in Ireland have changed over the decades. The traditional families consisted of two married parents. Although still dominant, other forms of family structures are rising and count for a significant minority. The rise in divorce rates and separation has increased by 22.3%. The role of the family plays an important aspect in the life of the children. The children existing in the married family structures have greater advantages compared to those living with one parent. However, as the family structures change has caused an increase in the aspects of child neglect and abuse. The crisis of homelessness in Ireland has risen due to increased child abuse and neglect. The children are being exposed to the distressing fights between the adults and drug use which causes trauma. The problem of homelessness in Ireland has grown over time, with many children experiencing homelessness. The incidences such as stabbings and attempted suicides have affected the children psychologically. This study aims to analyze the issues with family structures, neglect, domestic violence, and trauma in children and the interventions and policies available in Ireland.

Types of Family Structures in Ireland

Married Families

Married families in Ireland are associated with several benefits, especially when it comes to children’s upbringing. Married couples are more likely to be more financially stable and provide their children with better physical and mental health. Commission on the Family (1998) depicted that children not raised in married families are more likely to have psychological and behavioral problems (p. 45). Observing this from the socialization perspective shows that married families are ideal for raising children. The parental responsibilities can be shared and hence improve the children’s wellbeing. The children living in lone parents’ houses have hindered supervision. It happens when it comes to the input of the male parent. The disrupted families have the transfer of social capital being restricted when it comes to the co-parent social capital. Cousins (2006) stipulates that a male parent at home is important because it provides the children with a male role model at home (p. 17). This is because the single mother families experience difficulties bringing the boys’ children due to a lack of same-sex role models. The fathers provide the children with emotional and financial needs.

However, married families do not provide maximum benefits for the children or an optimum environment for their development (Daly, 2004, p. 63). The children living in violent families experience more psychological problems when the parents are engaged in aggressive behaviors. These violent behaviors affect the children until their adulthood. The children adopt the aggressive behaviors of their parents and learn to handle the disagreement in an aggressive manner (Baron et al. 2000, p. 87). Therefore, although married families are ideal for the upbringing of the children, the problems of families such as domestic violence pose more harm to the children.

Divorced and Separated Families

The children experiencing parental separation and divorce are at a higher risk of emotional and behavioral problems. The children, after divorce or separation, experience more adverse outcomes in their education. Ferguson and Hogan (2004) explained that separated and divorced families experience parental conflict before and after the separation (p. 22). The conflicts affect the children negatively. The changes that occur after divorce are stressful for the children, and in some cases, the loss of contact with the parents results in stressful situations and adverse behaviors.

Widowed Families

These are families that experience the loss of a single parent. It presents the children with serious developmental challenges, which increase the risk of poor mental health outcomes. However, these problems are not apparent immediately. The widowed families have a high likelihood of strained financial and psychological outcomes (Booth and Crouter, 1998, p. 78). Therefore, the stress in divorced and widowed families experiences the same aspects of stress and mental problems.

Never Married Families

The never-married families are those that include cohabitating and lone-parent families. The number of children living in cohabitating families is increasing in Ireland. However, the children have negative outcomes due to the instability in the families (Clark et al. 2005, p. 67). Such parents have fewer resources and hence higher levels of depression compared to married parents.

Family Violence and Abuse in Ireland

The problem of family violence, abuse, and neglect in Ireland has increased. The Irish children and teenagers experience high rates of abuse, neglect, and violence that can turn to suicide. According to Laslett et al. (2020), Ireland has the second-highest rate of children dying from intentional injuries in Europe due to abuse and problems from the families (p. 358). The problems with the families are that they are experiencing many financial problems due to the economic crisis. The result is an increase in the number of people living below the poverty line. The increase in the risks of all forms of violence leads to childhood maltreatment, abuse, and suicide (McLafferty et al., 2018, p. 44). The causes of family abuse and neglect in Ireland are majorly economic deprivation and maternal depression.

The family income is a major determinant of the way families live and bring up their children. Lack of financial stability explains the disparity in the outcomes of the families (v et al., 2019, p. 37). The increasing economic hardships put single-parent families at higher risks of being subjected to economic disadvantage. It is a problem that produces poorer developmental outcomes due to the disadvantages of the family structure. Poverty is a problem that is associated with the problem of poor developmental issues of children into adulthood. Crowley (2017) explains that poverty places single-parent families at higher financial risks due to lower-income (p. 303). The children thus experience poor health, poor education, and poor living standards. The unmarried parents in Ireland are more in the lower-income groups. Single parents are unable to sustain their children when they have more children in the families. Families with both parents are more likely to enhance their levels of income and avoid economic deprivation.

Maternal depression can negatively affect families (Elliffe and Holt 2019, p. 592). The problem is that parental depression results in loss of family resources and influences the children’s emotional and behavioral outcomes. According to McLafferty et al. (2018), single-parent families report higher levels of maternal depression compared to families with both parents (p. 40). The children being raised in a home where the parent is depressed negatively assessed their behaviors because they have low tolerance levels.

Child Abuse in Ireland

There are different forms of child abuse that have been reported in Ireland. They include neglect, emotional, physical abuse, and sexual abuse. The problem of abuse occurs in the family, community, and institutional setting. The abuser can be a person the child understands or a stranger.

Neglect

Child neglect is the most common of abuse occurring to children in Ireland. The levels of chronic neglect are harmful to the development and the welfare of the children in the long term (Bland et al. 2018, p. 128). Neglect occurs when the children are not adequately cared for, and they are harmed physically and developmentally. The omission of care and inadequate provision of food, clothing, and medical care constitute neglect. According to Dubowitz et al. (2019), the level of neglect and the number of children living in government facilities is increasing (p. 104027). Neglect in Ireland results from poverty, misuse of substances, domestic violence, and mental illnesses. The features of child neglect include leaving a child without supervision, lack of food, non-organic failure to thrive.

Emotional Abuse

Emotional abuse refers to the systematic emotional and psychological ill-treatment of the children when they are in a relationship with the caregiver and the child (Kwok et al. 2019, p. 104031). The emotional problems result from the children’s lack of attention, affection, and approval. The insecurities of the children are thus not considered as the parents are incapacitated. Emotional abuse occurs when the parents are unaware or unable to meet the emotional needs of the children (Wang et al. 2019, p. 934). Some of the emotional abuse problems in Ireland include rejection, lack of love and comfort, lack of attachment, and lack of proper stimulation.

Physical Abuse

Physical abuse occurs when a child is hurt intentionally and is put at risk of being physically hurt. The main concern is that physical abuse results in damage to the child’s health (Carr et al. 2020, p. 665). Physical abuse includes physical punishment, pushing and throwing, excessive force in handling, and beating. In Ireland, the Children First Act of 2015 was meant to abolish reasonable chastisement in court proceedings (Case and Haines 2021, p. 14). The aim was to ensure the parents and caregivers do not use the excuse of disciplining the child as a defense for physical abuse. The change in the law results in parents’ prosecution and ensures that physical cruelty is punished by law.

Sexual Abuse

Sexual abuse occurs when another person uses a child for their gratification. The incidences of the child being involved in masturbation, fondling, oral or penetrative sex are all forms of sexual abuse (Crowley 2017, p. 307). Child abuse includes the sexual act intentionally performed in the presence of a child, sexual intercourse in the child’s presence, or molesting a child sexually.

Emotional Trauma in Children in Ireland

The numbers of domestic violence in Ireland show that one in four women have been in a relationship where they have been abused. It means that the children grow in families where there is a lot of domestic violence (Sloan et al. 2020, p. 104619). Domestic violence is the abuse that is a pattern of incidents that threaten the safety of family members. The incidents of domestic violence may be physical, sexual, emotional, or financial. Domestic abuse nowadays can occur through social media or mobile phones. The incidences of domestic violence where the children witness are more destructive to their emotional stability. According to Dubowitz et al. (2019), children in families that live in families that experience domestic violence experience problems of being beaten (p.104027). Sexual and emotional abuse also occurs in this family setting.

The children experience different emotions when they see their parents in an abusive, attacking, and controlling relationship. The younger children become anxious and may have difficulty sleeping (Elliffe and Holt 2019, p. 592). However, the older children are more distressed and may become aggressive later on in their life. Domestic violence also causes the children to engage in alcohol and substance abuse as they try to get over the emotional trauma they undergo in the family. The children also develop posttraumatic stress disorder and get nightmares, flashbacks, and physical pains. However, the greatest effect of emotional trauma in children in Ireland is intentional injury. The European Child Safety stipulates that 35,000 children and adolescents die due to self-caused injuries (Piran 2017, p. 40). The majority of these deaths are emotional and result from emotional trauma. These deaths result from failed family structures.

Models of Social Care

The children are majorly affected when there are family problems in the society. There are different models that can be used to explain the impact of the family problems on the children (Cousins 2006, p. 88). The social learning theory developed by Albert Bandura stipulates that the learning occurs by observing the behaviors of others. As such, the children are able to emulate the other people including parents and learn. Families where domestic violence is present makes the children grow up knowing this is an acceptable behavior (Dubowitz et al. 2019, p. 101947). It makes them more likely to practice the same in their marriages.

The second theory is the systems theory. The systems theory explains that the people are a product of a complex system and not isolated beings (Carr et al., 2019, p. 677). Therefore, behaviors are influenced by several factors that interplay in the system. Some of these factors are family, friends, and the social settings. Therefore, the changing family structures in Ireland will have a major effect on the way children grow up behaving, thinking and acting. Therefore, with straining relationships in families, the children are likely to develop disorders such as anxiety, depression, and risky behaviors (Crowley 2017, p. 304). The society influences the children and makes them to experience the problems caused by systemic breakdowns.

The third theory is the psychosocial development theory. It explains that the development of a human being takes place in eight stages (Sanjeevi et al. 2018, p. 637). Therefore, the breakdown in any of these stages affects the rest of the development. A child that has developed mistrust as opposed to trust as they are growing due to domestic violence is likely to be shameful and doubtful as opposed to living in autonomy (Sabri and Granger 2018, p. 1039). Therefore, the social factors in the society affects the development of children either positively or negatively.

Risk, Resilient, Models, and Theories

The resiliency theory is a theoretical perspective that was developed from the ecosystem’s perspective. It explains the problem of hardiness that consisted of three psychological attitudes such as commitment, challenge, and control. Resilience helps individuals to cope with the negative experiences in their life of individuals. According to Sanjeevi et al. (2018), resilience consists of the resistance to destruction or the ability of an individual to construct a positive life irrespective of the adversities they are facing (p. 638). The problem of child trauma and self-injuries has been associated with the lack of resilience in their lives. They are vulnerable to different incidences that occur in their life. Children are in the sensitive times of their life and development and hence require caring and empathetic adults. Therefore, the risk factors are the conditions of adversity responsible for reducing the individual’s resistance to stress (Hildebrand et al. 2019, p. 53). The risks are thus responsible for the development of trauma and stress.

Children Resilience

Resilience among children and adolescents has a positive relationship with their response to traumatic situations. However, the children lack resilience because of the multiple risk factors affecting their families, schools, and communities. According to Tsirigotis and ?uczak (2018), protective characteristics in children such as high intelligence, easy temperament, and planning skills help them cope with difficult situations at home (p. 211). However, the problem is that children are generally disturbed by what happens at home. Children with behavioral disturbance and those with mentally ill parents are less likely to act in an efficient manner (Carr et al. 2020, p. 675). Therefore, the children get resilience in different situations depending on the family ties and the external supports of the experience.

Family Resilience

Family resilience is important in the life of the child as they develop. The family influences the aspects of leadership, decision-making, cohesion, and flexibility. The family supports the child effectively when there is a child (Case and Haines, 2021, p. 16). However, the children exposed to domestic violence and problematic marriages cannot develop resiliency to difficult situations. They are not allowed to develop this trait, and hence their interactions with other people are faced with problems. However, the family can be seen as a risk or a part of developing resilience for the children. The families determine the methods children know are better in handling difficult situations. Children exposed to domestic violence learn that they can solve problems in a violent manner (Piran, 2017, p. 60). Therefore, the family can be a risk factor in the development of emotional vulnerability in children. The aspects such as poverty, illness, and marital conflict affect the children even as adults.

Community Resilient

As stated by Laslett et al. (2020), community resilience determines the behavioral outcomes in children (362). The family is considered a source of social support, and the community influences the resilience levels developed by the children. The presence of laws that support the children and their emotional wellbeing is important in enhancing their resilience development and growing with confidence. The good relationships between parents and the community also are the main predictor of posttraumatic stress symptoms in children. The children exposed to negative experiences look into the reaction of the immediate caregivers (Bland et al. 2018, p. 134). Therefore, this develops the ability of the child to interpret the threat, and hence being empathetic to children helps develop their resilience to difficult situations.

The Risk of Violence in Families under the Socioecological Model

The socioecological accounts help to understand how the problems in families have disrupted the socioecological models and the interaction between the people and the environment. According to McMahon et al. (2021), humans adapt to political, interpersonal, and economic environments (p. 847). Therefore, the changes in family structures in Ireland have increased the risks of child abuse and neglect due to changes in children, caregivers, and family dynamics. Bronfenbrenner, in his ecological model, explained that different levels of the environment impact children. The microsystem includes the immediate environment the children interact with. The oppositional behaviors and the harsh responses are a result of increased negative behaviors at home. The aspects of domestic violence cause stress and tension in the children. The microsystem can also include increased parental alcohol consumption, which is done to manage stress and tension (Sanjeevi et al. 2018, p. 638). Although the parents take alcohol to overcome their problems, it results in more pressure in the relationships, causing children to experience more violence from the parents. It is a phenomenon that causes the parents to neglect their parental duties and increase stress on the children.

Exosystem refers to the economic consequences to the children. Living with single parents is a major problem as the families experience low income and hardships. Sabri and Granger (2018) stipulate that these are the risk factors for the maltreatment of children (p. 1041). The problem is that single parents live in social isolation, making it hard to detect the situations of abuse outside the families. Therefore, the children grow in a situation full of pain and develop the notion of violence. The culture and attitudes also influence the children’s rights and the risk of violence. In Ireland, at one point, the parents could use the issue of discipline to be the reason for punishing the children (Tsirigotis and ?uczak 2018, p. 210). However, the problem was that this resulted in assaulting and disregarding the children’s rights. Therefore, children’s violence is influenced by what is happening in their homes and the community.

Future Possibilities for Strengthening Families

Policies and Partnerships in Ireland

The policies and partnerships provides the social workers with a working platform to help respond to the issues in the society. Through policies, it is possible to defend the rights of all in the family. The social policies are the plans and actions that of state agencies. The policies are based on the governments enacting laws to provide a framework for the agencies to operate. Therefore, the social policies in Ireland affect families in a big way. The major laws that influence aspects of domestic violence and child abuse include the laws on marriage and divorce and those on child protection and adoption.

Children Act of 2001

In 2001, Ireland enacted laws that replaced the Children Act of 1908 (Ledoux et al. 2018, p. 3). This law aimed to develop the juvenile justice system, reenact the protection of children against persons who charge them, and provide the family welfare provisions where the children are faced with the risks of life, health, and safety (Foody et al. 2018, p. 127). Therefore, the aim was to ensure there was more protection on the children for the social welfare programs to ensure the children were safe.

Child Care Act of 1991

The Child care Act was established to ensure the law protects children that were being assaulted and ill-treated. The law also protected the children at risk of being assaulted (Nygren et al. 2019, p. 152). Therefore, the law placed the responsibility of caring for the children not receiving adequate care and protection from their parents under the Health Service Executive (HSE). It also had to provide care and family support services and ensure the courts could place assaulted children. Therefore, the law was a beginning to ensuring the children had a right to live in an effective environment (Ledoux et al. 2018, p. 4). Those experiencing domestic violence and other forms of abuse were protected under the law, and the HSE would take over and protect them.

Criminal Justice Act of 2006

This legislation aimed to provide more protection to children and ensure those that caused them pain was dealt with (Lagdon et al. 2021, p. 3). Therefore, it introduced the aspect of criminal charges to the people that introduced reckless endangerment to the lives of children. Therefore, those in the care of the children leave them in a situation that creates a substantial risk to them, and failure to take steps to protect the children from harm attracts a criminal offense. Such parents are fined or imprisoned for not more than ten years (Nygren et al. 2019, p. 153). Therefore, this legislation provided children with justice for the trauma they undergo in their families.

Domestic Violence Act of 1996

The problem of domestic violence is one of the problems that lead to neglect and child abuse in Ireland. The act was made to introduce changes in and legal remedies to domestic violence (Sabri and Granger 2018, p. 1054). As such, it introduced the safety order where one is prohibited from further threats of violence. The law ensures that people that live apart should ensure the violent person does not come to the vicinity of the partner. It also introduced the barring order were violent people have to leave home. This ensures the proper protection of the children and partners in the families (Lagdon et al. 2021, p. 4). It is legislation that ensures the HSE can intervene when individuals and children face violence.

Protection for Persons Reporting Child Abuse Act of 1998

The act was established to ensure the people who report child abuse through good faith are protected from civil liability (Foody et al., 2018, p. 139). The employees who report child abuse are protected and punished for the people who make false reports on child abuse. The act was meant to ensure the nurses, medical staff, and paramedical staff have the authority to report such cases. Therefore, the act ensures there is statutory immunity for the persons reporting child abuse.

Education Act of 1998

The Education Act of 1998 provided the children with the right to be educated. The law requires parents to provide appropriate education that helps them get an education that meets their individual needs.

Education Act of 2000

This was an act that was supposed to ensure that every child attended school. This is important because it helps to enhance parental care and ensure the children are not neglected due to the problem of parental issues.

The government of Ireland has developed different programs meant to enhance children’s protection even with the changing family structures (Case and Haines, 2021, p. 12). The Community Childcare Subvention Plus Program is meant to support parents from low-income families. The aim is to reduce childcare costs by participating in community childcare. The Single Affordable Childcare Scheme targets universal provisions for low-income households. The aim is to ensure there is quality childcare (Bland et al. 2018, p. 132). It helps to enhance the protection of children from poverty and violence due to the strained economic status of parents.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the problems of violence, abuse, and trauma in families are caused by the changing dynamics in the families. The standard Irish family was traditionally characterized by having a married couple and their children. However, with modernity, this has changed, and other minor families have emerged. This includes single-parent families. These families come with the problems of financial hardships, which exposes the children to violence and abuse. The problem of family breakdown is the increase in domestic violence. The children develop behavioral problems when they are exposed to violence. At the same time, the families are likely to neglect and abuse children when they have financial issues that affect their wellbeing. Therefore, children abuse and neglect are associated with problems in families.

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